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important institutional and structural factors contributing to these
variations are employment protection regulations and the role of
educational systems in signaling (Breen, 2005). Some typologies
cluster countries by employment regime based on patterns of
employment, employment protection regulations, signaling systems,
and other structural indicators (Bambra & Eikemo, 2009; Gallie &
Paugam, 2000; Quintini et al., 2007; Vogel, 2003; Walther, 2006).
These typologies overlap with Esping-Anderson’s (1990) classification
of welfare regimes, although some studies show possible
convergence across welfare states (Cinalli & Giugni, 2013).
The Scandinavian labor market is characterized by a high rate
of employment for men and women, moderate youth
unemployment, a high youth-to-adult unemployment ratio, and
flexible work hours. Given the tradition of comprehensive welfare
systems, employment protection is high (Esping-Andersen, 1990,
1999; OECD, 2015; Quintini et al., 2007; Stier
,
Lewin-Epstein, &
Braun, 2001; Vogel, 2003; Walby, 2004).
Continental countries including Austria and Germany, are
characterized by low youth unemployment, low youth-to-adult
unemployment, moderate earnings inequality, and intermediate
levels of social protection. A key factor in the low youth
unemployment is the dual education system
—
the combination of
apprenticeships in companies and vocational education at public
vocational schools
—
to smooth the transition from school to work
(Breen, 2005; Quintini et al., 2007; Vogel, 2003; Walby, 2004;
Walthier, 2006).
The employment regimes of Anglo-Saxon countries feature
low youth unemployment, a high youth-to-adult unemployment
ratio, flexibility in the market, high-quality education, but fewer
temporary jobs. Compared to Scandinavian countries, labor market
income inequality in liberal countries is high, and social protections
are limited (Quintini et al., 2007; Vogel, 2003; Walther, 2006).
Southern European countries tend to have low labor force
participation for men and women, high unemployment, long bouts